Vedic Composition
- Samhitas (1700-1100 BCE)
- collections of mantras and benedictions
- the term Veda is often used to refer to these Samhitas
- There are four “Vedic” Samhitas
- Rigveda
- Yajurveda
- Samaveda
- Atharva Veda
- Brahmanas
- commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices
- brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the samhitas
- They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads
- Aranyakas
- Third part of the Vedas
- Text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices
- “wilderness texts” or “forest treaties” – written in forests
- two types of aranyakas
- Chandogya aranyaka
- Jaiminiya Aranyaka
- composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses
- They focus on meditation and oppose rituals and sacrifies
- Upanishads
- Upani-sad that means ‘to sit down near someone’
- text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge
- Also known as Vedanta
- There are 108 Upanishads
- Upanishads are the culmination of ancient Indian philosophical ideas
- Upanishads also give less importance to ceremonies and sacrifices
- Upanishads are philosophical works in dialogue form
- our nation motto Satyameva Jayate is taken from the Mundaka Unanishad
Atharva Veda
- Latest of the four Vedas
- Entirely different from the other three Vedas in content and style
- describes the popular beliefs and superstitious of the folks
- these hymns are used to ward off the evil spirits
- It has two divisions
- Paippalada
- Saunakiya
- divided into 20 kandas and has 711 hymns and a collection of 5687 mantras
- Brahmanas of Atharvaveda – Gopatha brahmana
Samaveda
- saman i.e. ‘melody’, is a ‘collection of melodies
- meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice
- consists of 1549 verses
- Gandharvaveda
- Upveda of samavedas
- Also called as Natya sashtra
- Brahmanas of Samaveda
- Panchavish Brahmana
- Jaiminiya Brahmana
- Shadvish Brahmana
Yajurveda
- The book of the Adharyu priests
- prescribes the procedures for rituals or Yajnas
- There are two main texts
- Sukla Yajurveda or Vajasaneyi
- Krsna-Yajurveda
- Brahmanas of Yajur Veda
- Kasthaka
- Maitrayani
- Kapilathakatha
- Taittriya
Rigveda
- World’s oldest religious texts in continued use
- Composed between 1500-1200 BCE
- The texts is organized into
- 10 Mandalas
- contains 1028 hymns (suktas)
- Mandalas 2-7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books
- The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each
- Mandalas are subdivided into Suktas, rcas and padas respectively
- 9th Mandala is completely devoted to Soma
- The 10th mandala purusashukta mentions the varna syatem
- Rigveda has five branches
- Sakalya
- Baskala
- Asvalayana
- Sankhayana
- Mandukya
- The total mantras in Rigveda are 10,600
- Brahmanas of Rigveda
- Kaushitaki
- Aitreya
- Samakyana
Vedic Literature
Two divisions
- Shruti
- Body of sacred texts of divine origin comprising the central canon of Hinduism
- Believed to be a direct revelation of the “cosmic sound of truth”
- The first source of dharma is Sruti: the Vedas or Revelations
- Smriti
- Literally “that which is remembered”
- of human origin
- Auxiliary treatises of the Vedas and are the law books of Indian society
- smriti is the second source of authority for dharma
- Composed after the Vedas around 500 BCE
Four Vedas
- Rigeveda
- Yajurveda
- Samaveda
- Atharva Veda
- Each Vedas Individually consistis of
- Samhitas
- Brahmanas
- Aranyakas
- Upnishads
Upavedas
- Upveda (“applied knowledge”)
- Subjects of certain technical works
- Divisions
- Dharnurveda (deals with the art of archery)
- Gandharvaveda(deals with the music)
- Silpaveda (deals with are and architecture)
- Ayurveda (deals with medicine)
Vedic of Society
Society (Early Vedic period)
- Early Vedic people didn’t fight for territories
- Tribes were called Vis
- There was no Varma system in early Vedic period
- Families were Patriarchal and Patrilineal
- Three types of Marriages existed
- Monogamy
- Polygamy
- Polyandry
- Superstitions were employed to cure the diseases
- No officers for administering justice
- Status of Women
- Women were equal to men
- Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared
- Both women sages and female gods existed
- Women are allowed to study Vedas
Society (Later Vedic period)
- Old tribes grouped to form larger political units
- monarchical states began to form
- Rice and Wheat became chief crops
- Wars were fought for territory
- Vidhata disappeared completely
- social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups
- still kings did not possess any standing army
- People began to practise gotra exogamy
- society was divided under varna system
- Brahmana’s
- cult of sacrifices increased their position
- had monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise
- also claimed portions of territory as dakshina
- Vaishya’s
- constituted the common people
- aggigned the producing functions
- began to trade at the end of the Vedic period
- Shudras
- All three upper varnas were entitled to upanayana or sacred thread
- Status of Wemen
- Women could not participate in Sabha
- functions were demarcated for women
- women were prevented from attending rituals
- Male dominance increased to a great extent
- women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men
Marriage types
- Asura Vivah
- Marriage by purchase
- Arsa Vivah
- A token bride-price of a Cow and a Bull was given
- Brahma Vivah
- Marriage of a girl with the boy of same Varna with Vedic rites and rituals
- Daiva Vivah
- father donates his daughter to a priest as Dakshina
- Gandharva Vivah
- It was a kind of love marriage or swyamavara type
- Prajapati Vivah
- Marriage without dowry
- Rakshasha Vivah
- Marriage by abduction
- Paisach Vivah
- Seduction of a girl while sleeping
Vedic Culture
Culture
- Kinship was the basis of social structure
- Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn
- Recreation
- Flute (vana), lute(veena) , harp, cymbals, and drums were played
- Dancing dramas, chariot racing, and gambling were other popular pastimes
- Settlements
- Lived in mud settlements
- Food
- Milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables were consumed
Inscriptions
- Boghaz-Koi inscriptions
- Found in Cilicia the capital of the ancient Hittites
- Describes Vedic gods and goddesses
- Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatas were mentioned
Sites
- Bhagwanputra (Haryana)
- Painted Grey Ware site
- neither iron objects nor cereals were found
- 13 roomed mud house
- Punjab
- Painted Grey Ware site
Governance and Defence during Vedic Period
Vidhata (Tribal Assembly)
- Sabha
- a kin-based assembly with selected body of Elders or Nobles
- Women actively participated in the deliberations with men
- Women were stopped to attend assembly in later Vedic period
- Sabha performed Judicial Functions
- Samiti
- Assembly of the tribe for transacting tribal business
- dealt with policy decisions and political business
- Samiti did not have judicial functions
- Vidhata
- Women also participated
- Gana
Defence
- Vrajapati
- had controls over pasture land
- Gramini
- Military leader
- later became the head of a village
- Kulapa
- Head of the family
- Spasa
- Spy
- Dutas
- Envoys
- Police
- Ugra
- Jivagribha
- Madhyamasi
- Mediator
Religion during Vedic Period
Rig Vedic Religion
- They worshipped the forces of nature
- Rigvedic hymns were sung to pacify their deities
- There were no places of worship such as temples
- Indra was the most prominent deity in the Vedic society
- Sacrifices
- Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice)
- consecrated horse roams the kingdoms for a year
- horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors
- kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle
- Rajasuya sacrifice
- Confers supreme power on kings
- Major Dieties
- Indira
- Warlord
- Also called Purundara
- Agni
- Intermediary between people and God
- Varuna
- Upholder of natural order
- Soma
- God of plants
- Intoxicating drink is called soma
- Marut
- storm
- Usha
- Dawn
- She is a female lord
Later Vedic Religion
- Cult of sacrifice was prominent
- Animals were killed on a large scale
- sacrifice was known as Yajna
- Indra and Agni lost their importance and Prajapati took their place
- Rudra and Vishnu became important
- Symbolic worship increased
Organization of Vedic people
Hierarchy
- Family (Kula)
- led by Grihapati
- Village (Grama)
- led by gramini
- Clan (Vis)
- led by Vispati
- People of Tribe (Jana)
- Country (Rashtra)
Rajan
- Chief of tribe
- Other name – Gopati Janasya
- Duty is
- to protect his tribe and their cattle
- to lead campaigns to possess cattle
- Visa
- Election of chief by tribes
- Mentioned in Atharva Veda
Vedic Period
Origin of Vedic period
- Three hypothesis
- Indo-Aryan migrations
- Indo-European migrations
- Indigenous Aryans
- from Sapta Sindhu
- Original home of Aryans
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Arctic region
- Swami Dayananda Sarswati
- Tibet
- Max Mueller
- Central Asia
- Hurz Feldt
- Turkistan
- J C Rod
- Bacteria
Divided Into
- Early Vedic Period ( 1750-1000 BCE)
- Established at Sapta Sindhva Region
- Sindhu (Indus)
- Vitasta (Jhelum)
- Askini (Chenab)
- Purushni( Ravi)
- Vipas(Beas)
- Shatudri(Sutlej)
- Saraswati – Lost in the sands of Rajasthan
- Aryans migrated by eliminating the indigenous tribes Dasas and Dasyus
- Dasyus were phallus worshippers
- introduced chariots driven by horses
- Military conflicts
- Battle of Ten Kings
- Between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes
- Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe Kuru after the war
- Later Vedic period (1000-500 BCE)
- Expansion
- Use of Iron axes expanded settlement towards western Gangetic plains
- Vedic society transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture
- Painted grey Ware sites belong to later Vedic period
Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
Decline of IVC
- Natural causes
- Decrease in fertility of soil due to salinity
- shifting of river channels
- drying of rivers
- Floods
- Drought
- Deforestation
- Indo-Aryan Migration
- Decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia
- Major hypothesis
- John Marshall and others – Environmental degradation
- Mortimer wheeler – Aryan invasion
Indus Valley Civilization – Society
Political organization
- No clear picture yet
- no religious structures
- no ruling of preists
- Might have been ruled by merchants
- Nature of inheritance is not known in Harappan society
Recreational activities
- Terracotta figurines
- Fire-baked earthen clayware
- Used as toys or objects of worship
- Represent birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and monkeys
- Women figures were more in number than figures of men
- Yoga
- Harappans practised yoga
- Terracotta figurines in various yogic postures
- Stringed musical instruments
- toys and games
- Paintings
- Only pottery paintings were found
- no wall paintings have been discovered till date
Indus Valley Civilization-Skilled Occupations
Occupations
- Seal-making
- Shell working
- Boat working
- Masonry
- Ornament making
- Pottery
- Terracotta manufacture
- Spinning and weaving
Pottery
- Wheel made pottery dominated
- Still handmade pottery was practised
- designs of trees and circles were common
Ornaments
- Long barrel shaped cornelian beads
- Harappan gold is not bright enough due to high silver content
- Gold and silver jewellery
- Steatite bracelets and amulets
Sources of raw materials
- Copper – Khetri mines of Rajasthan
- Chert blades – Rohri hills of Sindh
- Carnelian beads – Gujarat and Sindh
- Lead – South India
- Lapis – Lazuli- Kashmir and Afghanistan
- Turquoise and Jade – Central Asia and Iran
- Amethyst – Maharashtra
- Agate, chalcedony and carnelian – Saurashtra
Indus Valley Civilization Inventions, Tools and Measurement system
Inventions by IVC
- Dental drill
- Bow drill
- Button
- Furnace
- Levee
- Ruler
- Step well
Tools
- copper was mined from Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan
- Copper and Bronze tools were used
- Flat-axes, chisels, arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws, razors and fish-hooks
- No use of Iron
- Largest number f copper tools found at Gunjeria
Measurement System
- Cubical and spherical units were made of chert, jasper and agate
- Decimal system
- Multiples of 16 was used to measure weights
- Sixteen Chhatank = ser
- 16 annas = one rupee
- Smallest division marked on an ivory scale
- founded in lothal
- approximately 1.704 mm
- smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze
Indus Valley Civilization – Agriculture and Domestication
Agriculture
- Agriculture was practised along the river banks
- Indus river inundated the region
- Floods took place annually
- produced two types of wheat and barley
- People sowed in flood plains during November and reaped in April
- First people to produce cotton
- Sesamum and mustard were also cultivated
- channel or canal irrigation was absent
Domestication
- Humped bulls were predominant
- reared buffaloes, sheep, oxen, asses, goats, pigs etc
- both dogs and cats were grown as pets
- kept asses and Camels for transport
- people were aquainted with Elephant and Rhinoceros
Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization Script
Script
- Indus script
- inscribed on
- Seals
- Bones
- Ivory
- Copper tablets
- Pottery
- Not deciphered yet
- did not write long inscriptions
- script is pictographic
- no connection with scripts of western Asia
- scripts is not alphabetical
- Symbol of fishes were depicted predominantly
- Writing style
- Boustrophedon
- Writing from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines