Vedic Composition

1. Samhitas (1700-1100 BCE)

• collections of mantras and benedictions
• the term Veda is often used to refer to these Samhitas
• There are four “Vedic” Samhitas

1. Rigveda
2. Yajurveda
3. Samaveda
4. Atharva Veda
5. Brahmanas

• commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices
• brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the samhitas
• They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads

3. Aranyakas

• Third part of the Vedas
• Text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices
• “wilderness texts” or “forest treaties” – written in forests
• two types of aranyakas
• Chandogya aranyaka
• Jaiminiya Aranyaka
• composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses
• They focus on meditation and oppose rituals and sacrifies

4. Upanishads

• Upani-sad that means ‘to sit down near someone’
• text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge
• Also known as Vedanta
• There are 108 Upanishads
• Upanishads are the culmination of ancient Indian philosophical ideas
• Upanishads also give less importance to ceremonies and sacrifices
• Upanishads are philosophical works in dialogue form
• our nation motto Satyameva Jayate is taken from the Mundaka Unanishad

Atharva Veda

• Latest of the four Vedas
• Entirely different from the other three Vedas in content and style
• describes the popular beliefs and superstitious of the folks
• these hymns are used to ward off the evil spirits
• It has two divisions

1. Paippalada
2. Saunakiya

• divided into 20 kandas and has 711 hymns and a collection of 5687 mantras
• Brahmanas of Atharvaveda – Gopatha brahmana

Samaveda

• saman i.e. ‘melody’, is a ‘collection of melodies
• meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice
• consists of 1549 verses
• Gandharvaveda
• Upveda of samavedas
• Also called as Natya sashtra
• Brahmanas of Samaveda
• Panchavish Brahmana
• Jaiminiya Brahmana
• Shadvish Brahmana

Yajurveda

• The book of the Adharyu priests
• prescribes the procedures for rituals or Yajnas
• There are two main texts
• Sukla Yajurveda or Vajasaneyi
• Krsna-Yajurveda
• Brahmanas of Yajur Veda
• Kasthaka
• Maitrayani
• Kapilathakatha
• Taittriya

Rigveda

• World’s oldest religious texts in continued use
• Composed between 1500-1200 BCE
• The texts is organized into
• 10 Mandalas
• contains 1028 hymns (suktas)
• Mandalas 2-7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books
• The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each
• Mandalas are subdivided into Suktas, rcas and padas respectively
• 9^th Mandala is completely devoted to Soma
• The 10^th mandala purusashukta mentions the varna syatem
• Rigveda has five branches
• Sakalya
• Baskala
• Asvalayana
• Sankhayana
• Mandukya
• The total mantras in Rigveda are 10,600
• Brahmanas of Rigveda

1. Kaushitaki
2. Aitreya
3. Samakyana

Vedic Literature

Two divisions

• Shruti
• Body of sacred texts of divine origin comprising the central canon of Hinduism
• Believed to be a direct revelation of the “cosmic sound of truth”
• The first source of dharma is Sruti: the Vedas or Revelations
• Smriti
• Literally “that which is remembered”
• of human origin
• Auxiliary treatises of the Vedas and are the law books of Indian society
• smriti is the second source of authority for dharma
• Composed after the Vedas around 500 BCE

Four Vedas

• Rigeveda
• Yajurveda
• Samaveda
• Atharva Veda
• Each Vedas Individually consistis of

1. Samhitas
2. Brahmanas
3. Aranyakas
4. Upnishads

Upavedas

• Upveda (“applied knowledge”)
• Subjects of certain technical works
• Divisions
• Dharnurveda (deals with the art of archery)
• Gandharvaveda(deals with the music)
• Silpaveda (deals with are and architecture)
• Ayurveda (deals with medicine)

Vedic of Society

Society (Early Vedic period)

• Early Vedic people didn’t fight for territories
• Tribes were called Vis
• There was no Varma system in early Vedic period
• Families were Patriarchal and Patrilineal
• Three types of Marriages existed
• Monogamy
• Polygamy
• Polyandry
• Superstitions were employed to cure the diseases
• No officers for administering justice
• Status of Women
• Women were equal to men
• Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared
• Both women sages and female gods existed
• Women are allowed to study Vedas

Society (Later Vedic period)

• Old tribes grouped to form larger political units
• monarchical states began to form
• Rice and Wheat became chief crops
• Wars were fought for territory
• Vidhata disappeared completely
• social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups
• still kings did not possess any standing army
• People began to practise gotra exogamy
• society was divided under varna system
• Brahmana’s
• cult of sacrifices increased their position
• had monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise
• also claimed portions of territory as dakshina
• Vaishya’s
• constituted the common people
• aggigned the producing functions
• began to trade at the end of the Vedic period
• Shudras
• All three upper varnas were entitled to upanayana or sacred thread
• Status of Wemen
• Women could not participate in Sabha
• functions were demarcated for women
• women were prevented from attending rituals
• Male dominance increased to a great extent
• women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men

Marriage types

• Asura Vivah
• Marriage by purchase
• Arsa Vivah
• A token bride-price of a Cow and a Bull was given
• Brahma Vivah
• Marriage of a girl with the boy of same Varna with Vedic rites and rituals
• Daiva Vivah
• father donates his daughter to a priest as Dakshina
• Gandharva Vivah
• It was a kind of love marriage or swyamavara type
• Prajapati Vivah
• Marriage without dowry
• Rakshasha Vivah
• Marriage by abduction
• Paisach Vivah
• Seduction of a girl while sleeping

Vedic Culture

Culture

• Kinship was the basis of social structure
• Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn
• Recreation
• Flute (vana), lute(veena) , harp, cymbals, and drums were played
• Dancing dramas, chariot racing, and gambling were other popular pastimes
• Settlements
• Lived in mud settlements
• Food
• Milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables were consumed

Inscriptions

• Boghaz-Koi inscriptions
• Found in Cilicia the capital of the ancient Hittites
• Describes Vedic gods and goddesses
• Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatas were mentioned

Sites

• Bhagwanputra (Haryana)
• Painted Grey Ware site
• neither iron objects nor cereals were found
• 13 roomed mud house
• Punjab
• Painted Grey Ware site

Governance and Defence during Vedic Period

Vidhata (Tribal Assembly)

• Sabha
• a kin-based assembly with selected body of Elders or Nobles
• Women actively participated in the deliberations with men
• Women were stopped to attend assembly in later Vedic period
• Sabha performed Judicial Functions
• Samiti
• Assembly of the tribe for transacting tribal business
• dealt with policy decisions and political business
• Samiti did not have judicial functions
• Vidhata
• Women also participated
• Gana

Defence

• Vrajapati
• had controls over pasture land
• Gramini
• Military leader
• later became the head of a village
• Kulapa
• Head of the family
• Spasa
• Spy
• Dutas
• Envoys
• Police
• Ugra
• Jivagribha
• Madhyamasi
• Mediator

Religion during Vedic Period

Rig Vedic Religion

• They worshipped the forces of nature
• Rigvedic hymns were sung to pacify their deities
• There were no places of worship such as temples
• Indra was the most prominent deity in the Vedic society
• Sacrifices
• Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice)
• consecrated horse roams the kingdoms for a year
• horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors
• kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle
• Rajasuya sacrifice
• Confers supreme power on kings
• Major Dieties
• Indira
• Warlord
• Also called Purundara
• Agni
• Intermediary between people and God
• Varuna
• Upholder of natural order
• Soma
• God of plants
• Intoxicating drink is called soma
• Marut
• storm
• Usha
• Dawn
• She is a female lord

Later Vedic Religion

• Cult of sacrifice was prominent
• Animals were killed on a large scale
• sacrifice was known as Yajna
• Indra and Agni lost their importance and Prajapati took their place
• Rudra and Vishnu became important
• Symbolic worship increased

Organization of Vedic people

Hierarchy

1. Family (Kula)

• led by Grihapati

2. Village (Grama)

• led by gramini

3. Clan (Vis)

• led by Vispati

4. People of Tribe (Jana)
5. Country (Rashtra)

Rajan

• Chief of tribe
• Other name – Gopati Janasya
• Duty is
• to protect his tribe and their cattle
• to lead campaigns to possess cattle
• Visa
• Election of chief by tribes
• Mentioned in Atharva Veda

Vedic Period

Origin of Vedic period

• Three hypothesis
• Indo-Aryan migrations
• Indo-European migrations
• Indigenous Aryans
• from Sapta Sindhu
• Original home of Aryans
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Arctic region
• Swami Dayananda Sarswati
• Tibet
• Max Mueller
• Central Asia
• Hurz Feldt
• Turkistan
• J C Rod
• Bacteria

Divided Into

• Early Vedic Period ( 1750-1000 BCE)
• Established at Sapta Sindhva Region
• Sindhu (Indus)
• Vitasta (Jhelum)
• Askini (Chenab)
• Purushni( Ravi)
• Vipas(Beas)
• Shatudri(Sutlej)
• Saraswati – Lost in the sands of Rajasthan
• Aryans migrated by eliminating the indigenous tribes Dasas and Dasyus
• Dasyus were phallus worshippers
• introduced chariots driven by horses
• Military conflicts
• Battle of Ten Kings
• Between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes
• Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe Kuru after the war
• Later Vedic period (1000-500 BCE)
• Expansion
• Use of Iron axes expanded settlement towards western Gangetic plains
• Vedic society transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture
• Painted grey Ware sites belong to later Vedic period

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

Decline of IVC

• Natural causes
• Decrease in fertility of soil due to salinity
• shifting of river channels
• drying of rivers
• Floods
• Drought
• Deforestation
• Indo-Aryan Migration
• Decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia
• Major hypothesis
• John Marshall and others – Environmental degradation
• Mortimer wheeler – Aryan invasion

Indus Valley Civilization – Society

Political organization

• No clear picture yet
• no religious structures
• no ruling of preists
• Might have been ruled by merchants
• Nature of inheritance is not known in Harappan society

Recreational activities

• Terracotta figurines
• Fire-baked earthen clayware
• Used as toys or objects of worship
• Represent birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and monkeys
• Women figures were more in number than figures of men
• Yoga
• Harappans practised yoga
• Terracotta figurines in various yogic postures
• Stringed musical instruments
• toys and games
• Paintings
• Only pottery paintings were found
• no wall paintings have been discovered till date

Indus Valley Civilization-Skilled Occupations

Occupations

• Seal-making
• Shell working
• Boat working
• Masonry
• Ornament making
• Pottery
• Terracotta manufacture
• Spinning and weaving

Pottery

• Wheel made pottery dominated
• Still handmade pottery was practised
• designs of trees and circles were common

Ornaments

• Long barrel shaped cornelian beads
• Harappan gold is not bright enough due to high silver content
• Gold and silver jewellery
• Steatite bracelets and amulets

Sources of raw materials

• Copper – Khetri mines of Rajasthan
• Chert blades – Rohri hills of Sindh
• Carnelian beads – Gujarat and Sindh
• Lead – South India
• Lapis – Lazuli- Kashmir and Afghanistan
• Turquoise and Jade – Central Asia and Iran
• Amethyst – Maharashtra
• Agate, chalcedony and carnelian – Saurashtra

Indus Valley Civilization Inventions, Tools and Measurement system

Inventions by IVC

• Dental drill
• Bow drill
• Button
• Furnace
• Levee
• Ruler
• Step well

Tools

• copper was mined from Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan
• Copper and Bronze tools were used
• Flat-axes, chisels, arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws, razors and fish-hooks
• No use of Iron
• Largest number f copper tools found at Gunjeria

Measurement System

• Cubical and spherical units were made of chert, jasper and agate
• Decimal system
• Multiples of 16 was used to measure weights
• Sixteen Chhatank = ser
• 16 annas = one rupee
• Smallest division marked on an ivory scale
• founded in lothal
• approximately 1.704 mm
• smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze

Indus Valley Civilization – Agriculture and Domestication

Agriculture

• Agriculture was practised along the river banks
• Indus river inundated the region
• Floods took place annually
• produced two types of wheat and barley
• People sowed in flood plains during November and reaped in April
• First people to produce cotton
• Sesamum and mustard were also cultivated
• channel or canal irrigation was absent

Domestication

• Humped bulls were predominant
• reared buffaloes, sheep, oxen, asses, goats, pigs etc
• both dogs and cats were grown as pets
• kept asses and Camels for transport
• people were aquainted with Elephant and Rhinoceros

Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization Script

Script

• Indus script
• inscribed on
• Seals
• Bones
• Ivory
• Copper tablets
• Pottery
• Not deciphered yet
• did not write long inscriptions
• script is pictographic
• no connection with scripts of western Asia
• scripts is not alphabetical
• Symbol of fishes were depicted predominantly
• Writing style
• Boustrophedon
• Writing from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines