South India
Cholas | Karikala | Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam) |
Pandyas | Nedunjeliyan | Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras |
Cheras | Nedunjeral Adan | Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan & Sengutturan were the greatest king. |
Kings & their Court Jewels
1. | Pushyamitra Sunga | Patanjali |
2. | Mahendrapala I (Pratihara) | Rajshekhara |
3. | Kanishka | Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna |
4. | Chandragupta II | Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira |
Monuments of Ancient Period
1. | Udaygiri Caves | During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. |
2. | Angorwatt Temples | Suryavarman Ii |
3. | Vikramashila University | Pala King Dharampala |
4. | Kailash Temple (Ellora) | Rashtrakuta king Krishna I |
5. | Dilwara Temple | Tejapala |
6. | Rathas of Mamallapuram | Mahendravarman I (Pallava King) |
7. | Khajuraho temples | Chandelas |
8. | Martanda temple (Kashmir) | Lalitaditya Muktapida |
9. | Gommateswara (Son of Rishabnath) | Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla (Sravanbelagola, Karnataka) |
10. | Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid) | Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karnataka) |
Mahajanapadas
Kasi | Varanasi |
Kosala | Sravasti |
Kuru | Indraprashta |
Kamboja | Rajput |
Anga | Champa |
Avanti | Ujjayini & Mahishmati |
Ashmaka | Potana |
Malla | Kusinagar & Pawa |
Magadha | Rajgriha or Giriraj |
Matsya | Virat Nagari |
Vajji | Vaisali |
Vatsa | Kausambhi |
Surasena | Mathura |
Panchala | Aichhatra |
Chhedi | Shuktimati |
Gandhara | Taxila & Pushkalavati |
Mahajanapadas
S | Administrative Part | North India | South India |
1. | Provinces | Bhukti | Mandalam |
2. | Divisions | Vishaya or Bhoga | Kottams or Vallandadu |
3. | District | Adhistana/Pattana | Nadu |
4. | Tehsil | Vihtis | Pattala/Kurram |
Jargon of Ancient Period
Lohit Ayas | Copper | Pradeshika | Head of district Administration |
Syam Ayas | Iron | Nagarka | City administration |
Vanik | Traders | Jesthaka | Chief of a Guild |
Gramini | Village Head | Prathamakulika | Chief of artisans |
Bhagadugha | Tax collector | Uparika | Governor of Bhukti |
Sthapati | Chief Judge | Didishu | Remarried woman |
Takshan | Carpenter | Amatya | High official |
Niska | Unit of currency | Dvija | Initiation into education |
Satamana | Unit of currency | Yukta | Revenue officer in the Mauryan period. |
Pana | Term used for coin | Rajjukas | Land measurement & fixing land revenue |
Shresthi | Guilds | Sabha | Assembly of few select ones |
Vihara | Buddhist Monastery | Samiti | Larger Assembly |
Chaitya | Sacred Enclosure | Dharamamahamatya | Most important post created by Asoka. |
Miscellaneous Facts:
- The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.
- The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.
- Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.
- The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.
- Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.
- Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karnatka).
- The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization.
No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.
- Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alternated to left to right & vice versa.
- Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.
- Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).
- The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha
(Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times
- In the vedic age the varnas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.
- Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.
- During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarnath. Seven rock cut chaitya caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the Mauryas.
- The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.
- In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.
- Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varna & female of lower varna) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana & dana.
- Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.
- The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.
- The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarnatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.
- In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints
(Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.
- The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.
- The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).
- West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).
- The king of Suvarnadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.
- The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra, Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama & Saraswati.
- Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.
- Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.
- The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people.
The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.
- The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varna system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.
- The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).
- Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.
- The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarnath & the stupa at Sanghot.
Medieval India
North India
Ghadvalas | Chandradeva*. Jaichandra fought Muhammad Ghur |
Chandellas of Jejakabhukti/Bundelkhand | *Vidyadhara* & Yashovarman |
Paramaras of Malwa | Vakpati Munjal & *Bhoja* |
Chahamanas/Chauhans of Sakambhari | Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva, *Prithviraj III* (Chauhan) |
Kalachuris of Tripuri | Kokalla, Gangeyadeva & *Karna* (Rajshekhara) |
Chalukyas/Solankis of Gujarat | Bhima I & *Jayasimha Siddharaja* |
Kashmir | Avantivarman (supplanted Karkota dynasty to which belonged Lalitaditya Muktapida. |
East & the North East
Bengal (Sena dynasty) | Lakshmanasena (last Hindu ruler of Bengal) |
Orissa | Avantavarman Chodaganga (Mother daughter of Rajendra Chola) of Eastern Gangas & Narsimha I (sun temple) |
Assam (Ahoms) | Ahoms, a Shan tribe settled in mid 13th Century. |
Deccan & the South
Chalukyas of Kalyani | *Vikramaditya VI* (Introduced Chalukya-Vikram era) Bilhana’s Vikramanankadevacharita is based on him |
Yadavas of Devagiri | Bhillama V*, *Simhana* |
Kakatiyas of Warangal | Ganapati (ruled for 60 years) |
Cholas | Vijayalaya*, Rajaraja the Great, *Rajendra I*, Rajadhiraja, Rajendra II, Kulottunga I |
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra | Nrpakama*, Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II & Ballala III |
Pandyas | *Jatavarman Sundara.Pandya I* |
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD)
Slave Dynasty | Sayyid Dynasty | ||
1206-10 | Qutubuddin Aibak. | 1412-20 | Khizr Khan |
1210-36 | Shamsuddin Iltutmish | 1420-33 | Mubarak Shah |
1237-41 | Razia Sultana | 1433-43 | Muhammad Shah |
1241-46 | Bahram Shah & Masud Shah | 1443-51 | Alauddin Alam Shah |
1246-66 | Nasirruddin Mahmud | Lodhi Dynasty | |
1266-86 | Balban | 1451-89 | Bahlul Lodhi |
1286-90 | Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimur | 1489-1517 | Sikander Lodhi |
Khalji Dynasty | 1517-26 | Ibrahim Lodhi | |
1290-96 | Jallaluddin Khalji | ||
1296-1316 | Allauddin Khalji | ||
1316-20 | Mubarak Shah & Khusrau khan | ||
Tughlaq Dynasty | |||
1320-25 | Ghiasuddin Tughlaq | ||
1325-51 | Muhammad bin Tughlaq | ||
1351-88 | Firuz Shah Tughlaq | ||
1388-94 | Mohammad Khan, Ghiasuddin Tughlaq Shah II, Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin Muhammad, Humayun | ||
1394-12 | Nasirrudin Mahmud Tughlaq |
Delhi Sultanate
Slave | Qutbuddin Aibak | Died while playing Chaugan. Aram Shah (short period)
|
Shamsuddin Iltutmish | He defeated Yalduz of Ghazni & Qubacha of Multan. Captured the fort of Ranthambor, Lakhnauti. Organized the iqta system (land assignment) & currency (introduced copper tanka & silver jital). | |
Razia Sultana | Married Malik Altunia (Governor of Bhatinda). Turkish Aamirs played the dominant role & after Razia, they enthroned Bahram Shah, Masud Shah & Nasiruddin Mahmud in that order. | |
Balban (Ulugh Khan) | Balban was Turkish slave of Iltutmish. He poisoned his master Nasiruddin Mahmud. Killed the rebel governor of Bengal, Tughril Khan. He revived the practice of sijda (prostration) & paibos (kissing monarch’s feet). Kaikhusrau, Kaiquabad & Kaimurs had short duration. | |
Khalji | Jalaluddin Khalji | Descended at the age of seventy. Later Alauddin murdered his uncle & father in law Jalaluddin & seized the throne. |
Alauddin Khalji | Lay seige to Ranthambor which was under redoubtable Hammir Deva which continued till one year. Later Chittor under Ratan Singh (wife Padmini) fell & was renamed Kizhrabad. Malik Kafur campaigned against Kaktiyas (Warangal), Hoysalas (Dwarasamudra) & Pandyas. Mubarak Shah (son) & Khusrau khan had short rule. Kharaj (land tax – 50%), Charai, Gharii (dwelling tax). First to introduce permanent standing army, dagh & chehra. Afghans & Sultan’s Indian officers rose to prominence. | |
Tughlaq | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | Earlier called Ghazi Malik. Ghiasuddin had repelled mongol attack under khaljis before ascending throne. Attaked Kaktiyas & Bengal succesfully. Founded third city of Delhi – Tughlaqabad. |
Muhammad bin Tughlaq | Open consorting with Hindus & Jogis. Killed Ulemas, qazis who rose in rebellion. Shifted capital to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad), token currency (bronze coin-jittal). Shifted to Swargadwari during famine. At his death Barani commented, ‘at last the people got rid of him & he got rid of the people’. First sultan to visit the shrine of Moinuddin Chisti. Disciple of Shaikh Alauddin & Jinaprabha Suri. | |
Firuz Shah Tughlaq | Not a military leader. Conqured Thatta, Orissa (uprooted Jagannath idol), Nagarkot. Distributed iqtas, made them heritable increased salaries. Founded Fatehabad, Hissar, Firuzpur, Jaunpur & Firuzabad. Built canals. Influence of Ulema revived. First muslim ruler to impose Jaziya on Brahmins but abolished Ghari & Charai. Visited the shrine of Salar Masud Ghazi & became fanatical. Removed paintings from palace. Got many sanskirt works translated in Persian |
South India
Vijaynagar | Harihara & Bukka | These brothers were released by Muhammad Tughlaq & they laid the foundation of Vijaynagar empire (Sangama dynasty) |
Deva Raya I | Succeded his father Harihara II. Lead a crushing defeat against Sultan Firuz Shah Bahmani. Constuction of dam across the Tungabhadra. Italian, Nicolo de Conti came during his period. | |
Deva Raya II | Sometimes called Immadi Deva Raya. One of the greatest Sultan. | |
Bahamani | Firuz Shah Bahman | Great king. Lost to Deva Raya I & abdicated throne in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah I who transferred Bahmani Kingdom capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. Later with the help of Iranian prime minister Mahmud Gawan, Ahmad Shah I expanded considerably. Later Bhahmani kingdom got divied into five regions – Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar & Bidar. |
Tuluva | *Kishna Deva Raya* | After Deva Raya II came Suluva dyansty, which was replaced by Tuluva dynasty whose geatest ruler was Krishna Deva Raya. Ablest of Vijaynagar soverigns. After him Rama Raja succeded. |